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C ONTENT S
T ABLES,
FIGURES,
AND
BO XES
iv
A CKNO WLEDGMENT S
vi
ABBREVIA TIONS
vii
ABS TR A CT
viii
I.
INTR ODUCTION
1
II.
LAND
P OOLING
IN
NEP AL:
P O TENTIAL
AND
PITF ALLS
5
A.
Wha t
I s
Land
P ooling?
5
B.
I n t ernational
Examples
7
C.
Existing
and
P ot en tial
U ses
o f
Land
Pooling
in
N epal
8
III.
LESSONS
FR O M
IMPLEMENT A TION:
ENABLING
ENVIR ONMENT
12
A.
P olicy
and
R e gula t ory
F r amew ork
14
B.
I nstitutional
F r amew ork
15
C.
U rban
Planning
17
D.
F inanc e
18
IV.
LESSONS
FR O M
IMPLEMENT A TION:
22
SCHEME
DESIGN
AND
IMPLEMENT A TION
PR OCESSES
A.
F easibility ,
Consensus ,
and
Consult a tion
2 4
B.
P r oject
I nitia tion,
D esign,
and
Appr o v al
2 7
C.
D et ailed
D esign,
Land
R edistribution,
and
Construction
28
D.
H ando v er
29
V.
LESSONS
FR O M
IMPLEMENT A TION:
OUT C O MES
F OR
URBAN
DEVEL OP MENT
3 0
A.
U rban
F orm
31
B.
I nfr astructure
and
Basic
Servic es
33
C.
O pen
Space
36
D.
A ff or dable
H ousing
40
VI.
C ONCL USIONS
AND
RE C O MMEND A TIONS
42
A.
H as
30
Y ear s
o f
Land
Pooling
D eliv er ed
R esults
f or
N epal’ s
Cities?
42
B.
R ec ommenda tions
43
REFERENCES
49
T ABLES,
FIGURES,
AND
BO XES
T ABLES
1
Land
Pooling
P r ojects
in
the
K a thmandu
V alle y
10
2
O pen
Space
Co v er age
in
Select ed
N epali
M unicipalities
36
3
Comparing
O pen
Space
Co v er age
acr os s
Asian
Cities
37
FIGURES
1
Example
o f
Spa tial
D ev elopmen t
P a tt erns
in
the
T er ai—P r o vinc e
1
2
2
P opula tion
Gr o wth
in
the
K a thmandu
V alle y ,
1989–2016
3
3
Land
Planned
and
Servic ed
thr ough
an
Ar ea
D ev elopmen t
Appr oach
6
4
Land
Pooling
F r amew ork
Char act eristics
9
5
Land
Pooling
P r ojects
in
the
K a thmandu
V alle y
11
6
Land
Pooling
P r ojects
in
the
K a thmandu
V alle y
and
Ahmedabad
18
7
Land
Pooling
P r oc es s
in
N epal
2 4
8
H ist oric al
D ev elopmen t
in
the
K a thmandu
V alle y
Land
Pooling
P r ojects
30
9
H ist oric al
D ev elopmen t
o f
Bagma ti
N agar
Land
Pooling
Ar ea
31
10
U rban
F orm
and
the
I changu
N ar a y an
Land
Pooling
P r oject
32
11
Comparison
o f
R oad
D ensities
W ithin
and
O utside
Land
Pooling
Ar eas
33
12
D ead-End
R oads
I nside
and
O utside
Land
Pooling
Ar eas
34
13
O pen
Space
Co v er age
in
Asian
Cities
38
14
Buildings
in
D esigna t ed
O pen
Spac es
39
15
Land
Pooling
Challenges
43
BO XES
1
Methodolo gy
U sed
in
P r eparing
This
W orking
P aper
5
2
Land
Pooling
in
Asia
8
3
Wha t
Ca uses
P r oject
D ela y s?
12
4
Land
Pooling
f or
Citywide
I nfr astructure — The
K a thmandu
13
O ut er
Ring
R oad
P r oject
T ables,
F igur es,
and
Bo x es
v
5
ADB
F inanc e
and
the
N a y a
Bazar
P r oject
20
6
Ahmedabad ’ s
Land
Bank
22
7
L e gally
D efining
the
Land
Pooling
P r oc es s
23
8
I s
P r oject
F easibility
Adequa t ely
As ses sed?
25
9
Griev anc e
R edr es s:
L es sons
fr om
J apan
and
Gujar a t
2 7
10
Consequenc es
o f
F easibility
S tudy
and
D esign
Shor t c omings
36
11
Land
Pooling
and
A ff or dable
H ousing
40
A CKNO WLEDGMENT S
The
a uthor s
thank
MaryGr ac e
W eber
f or
her
w ork
on
the
spa tial
analy sis ,
B hoj
R aj
P oudel
f or
c on tributions on
policy
is sues ,
and
Mahendr a
S ubba,
PhD ,
and
B ija y a
K .
Shr estha,
PhD ,
f or
their
t echnic al
input and
observ a tions .
The
t eam
is
gra t eful
t o
lando wner s
fr om
the
Sainbu
B hainsepa ti
and
Kamer ot ar land
pooling
ar eas ,
who
c on tribut ed
their
time
and
input
t o
f ocus
gr oup
discussions ,
as
w ell
as pr actitioner s
and
o fficials
in v olv ed
in
the
D hulikhel,
Gongabu,
I changu
N ar a y an,
Kamer ot ar ,
N a y a
Bazar , and
Sainbu
B hainsepa ti
pr ojects ,
who
shar ed
their
fir st-hand
experienc e.
The
det ailed
guidanc e
on
the Land
Pooling
pr oc es s
pr o vided
b y
the
D epar tmen t
o f
U rban
D ev elopmen t
and
Building
Construction, the
K a thmandu
V alle y
D ev elopmen t
A uthority ,
and
the
I nstitut e
o f
Engineering
a t
T ribhuv an
U niv er sity is
gr eatly
appr ecia t ed.
This
w ork
also
benefit ed
gr eatly
fr om
input
fr om
peer
reviewer s
including
Mahendr a
S ubba
and
B ija y a
K .
Shr estha,
S tuart
King,
Sar ah
H ui
Li ,
and
K ristine
R oa -F allorina
and
Ric ar do
Carlos
Barba
( Asian D ev elopmen t
Bank ).
ADB
Asian
D ev elopmen t
Bank
DPR
det ailed
pr oject
r epor t
DUDBC
D epar tmen t
o f
U rban
D ev elopmen t
and
Building
Construction (under
the
Ministry
o f
U rban
D ev elopmen t)
ha
hect ar e
IOE– TU
I nstitut e
o f
Engineering,
T ribhuv an
U niv er sity KMC
K a thmandu
Metr opolit an
City
K UKL
K a thmandu
U pa ty aka
Khanepani
Limit ed KVD A
K a thmandu
V alle y
D ev elopmen t
A uthority
KVTDC
K a thmandu
V alle y
T o wn
D ev elopmen t
Commit t ee LDF
Land
D ev elopmen t
F und
m 2
squar e
met er
MOUD
Ministry
o f
U rban
D ev elopmen t NT C
N epal
T elec om
PMC
pr oject
managemen t
c ommit t ee T A
t echnic al
as sist anc e
TD A
T o wn
D ev elopmen t
Act
TDC
t o wn
dev elopmen t
c ommit t ee TPS
t o wn
planning
scheme
UD A
U rban
D ev elopmen t
Act
ABS TR A CT
Although
N epal
is
one
o f
the
10
least
urbaniz ed
c oun tries
in
the
w orld,
its
urban
population
is
gr o wing r apidly .
I ts
spr a wling,
fr agment ed
patt ern
o f
urban
expansion
demonstr a t es
ho w
char act eristics
including inadequa t e
planning,
w eak
enfor c emen t
c apacity ,
and
the
lack
o f
a
le gal
pr ec eden t
f or
z oning
re gula tions ha v e
r esult ed
in
the
nons y st ema tic
gr o wth
o f
its
cities .
The
curr en t
tr aject ory
is
quickly
locking
N epal’ s municipalities
int o
an
urban
form
that
giv es
rise
t o
inefficien t
land
use,
mobility ,
and
infr astructure deliv ery ,
as
w ell
as
lo w
acc es s
t o ,
and
poor
quality
o f ,
municipal
servic es .
The
f ailur e
o f
the
public
sect or t o
guide
spa tial
gr o wth
in
N epal
has
r esult ed
in
a
gener ally
lo w
quality
st andar d
o f
living
f or
most
people in
cities ,
high
en vir onmen t al
de gr adation,
and
the
small
number
o f
public
open
spac es
such
as
parks .
Land
pooling
is
one
o f
sev er al
t ools
that
ha v e
been
implemen t ed
b y
the
go v ernmen t
acr os s
N epal
in the
past
30
y ear s ,
some
o f
them
with
Asian
D ev elopmen t
Bank
suppor t,
t o
secur e
land
f or
planned r esiden tial
dev elopmen t,
infr astructur e,
and
other
public
purposes .
Land
pooling
benefits
lando wner s , who
get
back
mor e
v aluable
servic ed
land.
Go v ernmen ts
also
benefit
b y
using
a
por tion
o f
the
land
t o financ e
infr astructur e.
I n
N epal,
ho w ev er ,
the
use
o f
land
pooling
f or
mor e
planned
urban
dev elopmen t has
st agna t ed
sinc e
the
early
2000s
bec a use
o f
bot tlenecks
that
ha v e
hampered
implemen t a tion,
and the
r esist anc e
o f
lando wner s
t o
schemes
that
ma y
t ak e
y ear s
or
w ell
o v er
a
decade
or
longer
t o
c omplet e than
planned.
This
paper
seeks
t o
dr a w
les sons
fr om
N epal
as
w ell
as
experienc es
thr oughout
Asia
and
pr o vide policy
and
t echnic al
r ec ommenda tions
t o
policy
mak er s ,
loc al
leader s ,
donor s ,
and
pr actitioner s
who ar e
int er est ed
in
reviving
and
sc aling
up
the
use
o f
land
pooling
in
N epal
as
a
c ost- eff ectiv e,
equit able, and
sust ainable
t ool
f or
t aking
a
mor e
pr o gr amma tic
appr oach
t o
urban
gr o wth.
The
review
is
timely ,
as N epal
is
no w
pr eparing
its
U rban
D ev elopmen t
Act,
the
c oun try
is
transitioning
t o
a
f eder al
structur e, and
the
jurisdictions
o f
most
municipalities
acr os s
the
c oun try
ha v e
r ec en tly
been
expanded
with
the mer ger
o f
surr ounding
villages ,
pr esenting
the
oppor tunity
t o
plan
s y st ema tic ally
f or
the
gr o wth
o f peri-urban
ar eas .
1.
Although
N epal
is
one
o f
the
10
least
urbaniz ed
c oun tries
in
the
w orld,
its
urban
population
is gr o wing
v ery
r apidly .
Of
its
t ot al
population
o f
about
29 .6
million
in
2018,
5.5
million
(sligh tly
belo w
20%) w as
urban—3.8%
mor e
than
its
urban
population
in
2017 ,
and
28%
higher
than
the
c orr esponding
figur e only
a
decade
earlier . 1
Mor e
than
50%
o f
this
urban
population
is
c oncen tr a t ed
in
the
K a thmandu
V alle y .
2.
U rbaniza tion
in
N epal
tends
t o
be
rapid,
spr a wling,
and
fr agment ed.
This
tr end
is
driv en
b y
the
shift fr om
a
rur al
t o
an
urbanizing
ec onom y ,
the
as socia t ed
driv e
f or
ec onomic
dev elopmen t
and
c ompetition f or
land,
and
either
lack
o f
land
re gula tions
or
w eak
enfor c emen t
c apacity ,
among
other
f act or s .
The curr en t
tr aject ory
is
quickly
locking
N epal’ s
municipalities
int o
an
urban
form
that
is
hampering
land-use efficiency ,
mobility ,
and
infr astructure
deliv ery ,
and
making
municipal
servic es
les s
acc es sible
and
poor er in
quality .
The
f ailur e
o f
the
public
sect or
t o
guide
spa tial
gr o wth
in
N epal
has
gener ally
lo w er ed
the
living st andar ds
o f
most
people
in
the
cities .
En vir onmen t al
de gr ada tion
is
high,
and
ther e
ar e
f ew
public
open spac es
such
as
parks .
The
inability
t o
pr o vide
adequa t e
servic ed
land
f or
r esiden tial,
c ommer cial,
and public
use
is
stifling
the
ec onomic
pot en tial
o f
N epal’ s
gr o wing
cities .
3.
N epal’ s
geo gr aph y
i...
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